Reliefs from the Exterior Wall of the Great Temple at Abu Simbel

New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty, Reign of Ramesses II (ca. 1279–1213 BCE)
Sandstone
Current location: Abu Simbel, Nubia, Egypt

Introduction: The Sun, the King, and Eternity

Carved into the sandstone cliffs of southern Nubia, the Great Temple of Abu Simbel stands as a monumental testament to the theology of divine kingship under Pharaoh Ramesses II. Dedicated primarily to Ra-Horakhty, the falcon-headed sun god, the temple embodies a cosmic alignment between the daily rebirth of the sun and the perpetual renewal of royal authority.1.

Twice each year, around February 22 and October 22, the rising sun penetrates the temple’s inner sanctuary, illuminating the statues of Ra-Horakhty, Amun-Ra, and Ramesses II, while leaving Ptah, the god of the underworld, in shadow. This precise astronomical alignment links the divine and the royal in an eternal ritual of light and order, or Ma’at 2

The temple’s exterior reliefs amplify this message. Here, Ramesses II appears in a series of offering scenes to major deities, each accompanied by hieroglyphic inscriptions proclaiming his royal names—Usermaatre Setepenre (“Powerful is the Maat of Ra, Chosen of Ra”) and Ra-messu Meriamun (“Born of Ra, Beloved of Amun”)—titles that affirm his role as mediator between humanity and the gods.3 4

Catalogue of Reliefs

1. Ramesses II Offering to Ra-Horakhty

In this relief, Ramesses II is enthroned before Ra-Horakhty, identified by his falcon head and solar disk. Between them, finely carved hieroglyphs record the traditional offering formula:

ḥtp dỉ nswt Ra-Ḥr-Ꜥḫty nb pt di=f Ꜥnḫ wꜢs snb ḫt nb nfr ḫt nb wꜢb nsw.t-bỉty Wsr-MꜤꜢt-RꜤ Stp.n-RꜤ sꜤ RꜤ RꜤ-ms-sw mry-Imn

“An offering which the king gives to Ra-Horakhty, lord of heaven, that he may grant all life, stability, dominion, and health, every good and pure thing, to the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Usermaatre Setepenre, son of Ra, Ramesses beloved of Amun.”

The formula and iconography closely parallel other façade scenes at Abu Simbel and Luxor Temple.5 Illuminated by the morning sun, this composition enacts the daily renewal of the cosmos through the king’s devotion.

2. Ramesses II Offering to the Solar Triad

In a more complex composition, the pharaoh offers before three seated gods crowned with solar disks, likely Ra-Horakhty, Amun-Ra, and Atum, representing the sun’s daily cycle of rising, zenith, and setting. A subsidiary register shows a smaller deity, perhaps Ma’at, receiving homage from a royal figure, symbolizing the cosmic balance sustained by divine kingship.

Such triadic solar groupings appear frequently in the Nubian temples of Ramesses II, reinforcing the theological unity of Egypt’s solar cults.6 The inscriptions reiterate the invocation of the sun god’s life-giving power and the king’s divine legitimacy.7

3. Ramesses II Before a Seated Deity

This restrained panel depicts the pharaoh standing reverently before a single seated god—perhaps Ra-Horakhty or Amun-Ra—holding a tall staff of authority. The simplicity of the composition highlights the intimacy of divine communication and reflects the canonical “presentation scene” format established during the reign of Sety I.8

The symmetry and stillness evoke the temple’s central theme: the pharaoh as eternal intermediary between humankind and the divine light.9

4. Ramesses II Presenting Offerings to a Divine Assembly

In this larger tableau, Ramesses II approaches a row of enthroned deities, likely including Ra-Horakhty, Ptah, and Amun-Ra. The hieroglyphic text reads:

nswt-bity Wsr-MꜤꜢt-RꜤ Stp.n-RꜤ sꜤ RꜤ RꜤ-ms-sw mry-Imn di=f ḥtp n nṯrw nbwy tꜢwy

“The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Usermaatre Setepenre, son of Ra, Ramesses beloved of Amun, gives offerings to all the gods of the Two Lands.”

Below, a smaller goddess—possibly Isis or Hathor—receives a secondary offering. The motif underscores the inclusive theology of Abu Simbel, where divine energy flows through the pharaoh to all gods of Egypt.10

Interpretation

Collectively, these reliefs form a solar liturgy in stone, representing the pharaoh’s perpetual role in sustaining creation through ritual offering. Each composition enacts a moment in the eternal cycle of divine reciprocity: the king nourishes the gods with offerings; the gods return life, order, and kingship to Egypt.

As Hornung observes, the Ramesside vision of the cosmos rested on a “dual divinity”—the god who creates and the king who maintains creation.11 Abu Simbel’s reliefs make this doctrine visible. The façade, aligned to the sun, transforms natural light into a sacred participant in the ritual. In this sense, the temple is not a static monument but a living interface between human devotion and the cosmic order.12 13

• 1. Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson, 2000, pp. 178–183
• 2. Abu Simbel Project. The Temples of Ramesses II in Nubia. Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities, 2006
• 3. Kitchen, Kenneth A. Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Vol. II. Oxford: Blackwell, 1979, §29;
• 4. Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982, pp. 115–118.
• 5. Epigraphic Survey. Scenes and Inscriptions from the Temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. Chicago: Oriental Institute Publications, 1955–1963, pl. 12.
• 6. Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson, 2000, pp. 185–187.
• 7. Kitchen, Kenneth A. Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Vol. II. Oxford: Blackwell, 1979, §34.
• 8. Epigraphic Survey. Scenes and Inscriptions from the Temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. Chicago: Oriental Institute Publications, 1955–1963, pls. 4–6.
• 9. Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982, pp. 62–64.
• 10. Abu Simbel Project. The Temples of Ramesses II in Nubia. Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities, 2006, pp. 66–68.
• 11. Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982, p. 119
• 12. Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson, 2000.
• 13. Kitchen, Kenneth A. Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Vol. II. Oxford: Blackwell, 1979