11th century

Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury

Anselm of Canterbury was one of the most influential churchmen and theologians of the late 11th and early 12th centuries, whose archiepiscopate was shaped by repeated conflict with royal authority over the independence of the Church. Appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1093, Anselm soon found himself at odds with King William II of England ⓘ (William Rufus), particularly over the appointment of bishops, the demand that Anselm perform homage to the king, and royal interference in ecclesiastical affairs.

Edward the Confessor

Edward the Confessor was king of England from 1042 until his death in 1066. Son of Æthelred II, he spent many years in exile in Normandy before returning to claim the throne. His reign was comparatively peaceful, characterised by strong ties with the Church and an emphasis on lawful governance rather than military expansion.

Holy Roman Emperor Henry II

Henry II, the last ruler of the Ottonian dynasty, was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1014. His reign is distinguished by strong cooperation with the papacy, energetic involvement in Italian affairs, and sustained support for ecclesiastical reform. He is the only German king to be canonised, recognised as Saint Henry by the Church (canonised 1146).

Pope Benedict VIII

Benedict VIII, born Theophylact of the powerful Tusculan family, reigned during a turbulent yet formative period of eleventh-century reform. His pontificate was marked by military intervention, close collaboration with imperial authority, and early alignment with the monastic reform movement centred on Cluny Abbey ⓘ.

Pope John XIX

John XIX, born Romanus of the Tusculan family, was pope from 1024 to 1032. He was elected on 19 April 1024, ten days after the death of his brother Benedict VIII, continuing the dominance of the Tusculan house over the papacy. Prior to his election, Romanus had held senior secular offices in Rome, including those of consul and senator, and functioned as a civil leader within the city.

Pope Urban II

Following the death of Pope Victor III on 16 September 1087, Odo of Lagery was elected pope as Urban II on 12 March 1088. His election took place not in Rome but in Terracina, south of the city, since Rome itself was controlled by the antipope Clement III, who had been installed with the backing of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV during the Investiture Controversy.

Robert Curthose

Robert Curthose (c. 1054–1134) was the eldest son of William the Conqueror ⓘ and a central figure in the turbulent politics of Anglo-Norman England in the generation after the Conquest. Although designated heir to the Duchy of Normandy, Robert’s career was marked by chronic financial weakness, political miscalculation, and ultimately long captivity.

William I of England

William I of England, known as William the Conqueror, ruled from 1066 to 1087. Born in Normandy, he claimed the English throne following the death of Edward the Confessor ⓘ and secured it through victory at the Battle of Hastings. His accession marked a decisive break in English political and social history.

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